1. The Mauryan Empire had1 five major political centers. The capital Pataliputra and the provincial centers of Taxila, Ujjayaini, Tosali and Suvarnagiri. 2. The administrative ‘control’ was very strong in regions around the capital and the provincial centers.
1. By the 11th century Sufism evolved into a well developed movement with a body of literature on Sufi practices and Quranic studies. 2. The Sufis began to organize communities around the hospice or Khanqah. It was controlled by shaikh, pir or murshid.
1. The colonial government felt that maps were essential to understand the landscape and know the topography. 2. This knowledge of mapping would allow better control over the region. The maps provided various important information.
1. The most unique feature of the Harappan civilization was the development of Urban centers. Harappan settlement is divided into two sections. Archaeologists designate these as the citadel and the lower town respectively. 2. The settlement was first planned and then implemented as per the plan other signs of planning comprise bricks, which, whether sun-dried or baked, were of a standardized ratio. Such bricks were used at all Harappan settlements. 3. One of the most distinctive features of Harappan cities was the carefully planned drainage system. Roads and streets were laid out along and used to be saviors of the British in earlier peasant and tribal revolts. 4. There was a lot of Hindu-Muslim unity and British could not divide them despite many efforts approximate ‘grid’ pattern, intersecting at right angles. 5. The Great Bath was a large rectangular tank in a courtyard surrounded by a planned corridor on all four sides. There were rooms on three sides. The uniqueness of the structure has led scholars to suggest that it was meant for some kind of special ritual bath.
There is no concrete proof about who was the composer of the original story or text of the Mahabharata. Historians speculate that the original story was composed by charioteer bards known as sutas who generally accompanied Kshatriya warriors to the battlefield and composed poems celebrating their victories and other achievements. These compositions circulated orally. The following elements are considered by historians : 1. Language and content: They looked for what kind of language is used and when it was prevalent. E.g., Mahabharata is written in Prakrit language which was a language of common use. 2. Search for convergence : Since Mahabharata mentions many forests, palaces and battles, historians look for these evidences. E.g., Kurukshetra war is supposed to happen in present day Kurukshetra and historians do the archaeological digging to ascertain this. 3. They look for similarities between traditions depicted in Mahabharata and other texts of that time. 4. Since the Mahabharata was composed over a long period, historians search for original contents and other inscriptional evidence such as inscriptions of chariots during war at many places.
According to Buddha, the world is transient (anicca) and constantly changing. 1. It is also soulless (anatta) as there is nothing permanent or eternal in it. Within this transient world sorrow (dukkha) is intrinsic to human existence. 2. The path of moderation between severe penance and self indulgence that human beings can rise above these worldly troubles. He advised kings and gajapatis to be humane and ethical. As Buddha regarded the social world as the creation of humans rather than of divine origin. 3. The Buddha emphasized individual agency and righteous action as the means to escape from the cycle of rebirth and attain self-realization and nibbana, literally the extinguishing of the ego and desire. According to Buddha, thus ending the cycle of suffering for those who renounced the world. 4.His last words to his followers were, “Be lamps into yourselves as all of you must work out your own liberation.”
Some of the more distinctive structures in the area have been given names based on the form of the buildings as well as their functions. The “King’s palace” is the largest of enclosures. It has two of the most impressive platforms, usually called the “Audience Hall” and the “Mahanavami Dibba”. Domingo Paes called the “Audience Hall” and the “Mahanavami Dibba” the “House of victory”. The “Mahanavami Dibba” is situated on one of the highest points in the city and is a massive platform, Paes maintained that in this “House of Victory” the king has a room made of cloth. Where the idol has a shrine and in the middle is placed a dais on which stands a throne of state.
1. Forest dwellers were termed jangli in contemporary texts. However, the term jangli did not mean an absence of “civilisation”. 2. The term used for those whose livelihood came from the hunting and shifting agriculture and gathering of forest produce. These activities were season specific. 3. This sequence presumed and perpetuated mobility, which was a significant feature of tribes inhabiting these forests. On the other hand for the state, the forest was a place of refuge (mawas) for troublemakers. 4. For example, among the Bhils spring was reserved for collecting forest produce, summer for fishing, monsoon for cultivation, and winter and autumn for hunting.
1. Intensely irritated colonial officials tried desperately to control and subdue the Paharias, but this task was very difficult. To control the Paharias the British embarked on a brutal policy of extermination in the 1770s. 2. By the 1780s, Augustus Cleveland, the Collector of Bhagalpur suggested a policy of pacification. 3. Paharias Chiefs were given a yearly allowance and made responsible for the proper conduct of pacification. 4. They were expected to keep order in their areas and discipline their own people. Due to pacification campaigns, the Paharias withdrew deep into the mountains, separating themselves from hostile forces.
1. The annexation of Awadh not only displaced the Nawab but also dispossessed the taluqdars of the region. 2. In Pre-British times, taluqdars kept armed retainers, built forts and enjoyed sufficient autonomy as long as they accepted the suzerainty of the Nawab and paid the revenue of their taluq. 3. The British did not want to tolerate the power of the taluqdars. The taluqdars of Awadh were disarmed and their forts smashed just after the annexation. 4. The land revenue policy of the British further undermined the position and authority of the taluqdars. The summary settlement proceeded to remove the taluqdars. Data show that before the arrival of the British, taluqdars had held 67% of the total number of villages in Awadh, by the summary settlement this number had come down to 38%.