Coinage plays a valuable role in determining certain periods of Indian history. Here are some instances : (i) Punch-marked coins made of silver and copper (c. sixth century BCE onwards) were amongst the earliest to be minted and used. These were recovered from excavations at a number of sites throughout the subcontinent. Numismatists made several attempts to identify the symbols on punch-marked coins with specific ruling dynasties, including the Mauryas, suggesting that these were issued by kings. It is also likely that merchants, bankers and townspeople issued some of these coins. (ii) The first coins to bear the names and images of rulers were issued by the Indo-Greeks, who established control over the north-western part of the subcontinent c. second century BCE. The first gold coins were issued c. first century CE by the Kushanas. Some of the most spectacular gold coins were issued by the Gupta rulers. Archaeologists have unearthed several thousand copper coins issued by the Yaudheyas, pointing to the latter’s interest and participation in economic exchanges.
Al-Biruni’s Kitab-ul-Hind comprises 80 chapters on subjects such as religion and philosophy, festivals, astronomy, alchemy, manners and customs, social life, weights and measures, iconography, laws and metrology. Al-Biruni adopted a distinctive structure in each chapter, beginning with a question, followed by a description based on Sanskritic traditions, and concluding with a comparison with other cultures.
The regions included within the empire were just too diverse. The Empire extended from Northwest India to Andhra Pradesh, Orissa. It is believed that administrative control was strongest in areas around the capital and the provincial centers. These centers were carefully chosen, both Taxila and Ujjain being situated on important long-distance trade routes, while Suvarnagiri (literally, the golden mountain) was possibly important for tapping the gold mines of Karnataka. Communication along both land and riverine routes was vital. The army was an important tool for not only extending the territories of the empire but also administering them. Megasthenes mentions a committee with six subcommittees for coordinating military activity. Of these, one looked after the navy, the second managed transport and provisions, the third was responsible for foot-soldiers, the fourth for horses, the fifth for chariots and the sixth for elephants. The activities of the second subcommittee were rather varied: arranging for bullock carts to carry equipment, procuring food for soldiers and fodder for animals, and recruiting servants and artisans to look after the soldiers.
1. Mahanavami Dibba is a platform with a base of 11,000 sq. ft. and a height of 40 ft. It supports a wooden structure. The base of the platform is covered with relief carvings. 2. Rituals associated with Mahanavami Dibba probably coincided with the festival of Mahanavami, also known as Dussehra, Durga Puja and Navratri. 3. The Vijayanagra kings displayed their prestige, power and suzerainty. 4. The ceremonies performed on the occasion included worship of the image, worship of the state horse, and the sacrifice of buffaloes and other animals. 5. Dances, wrestling matches, and processions of richly decked horses, elephants and chariots and soldiers, as well as ritual presentations by the nayakas before the king and his guests. 6. On the last day of the festival, the king inspected his army as well as the nayakas of the army. He also accepted gifts from the nayakas.
N.G. Ranga, a socialist who had been a leader of the peasant movement, urged that the term minorities be interpreted in economic terms. The real minorities were the poor and the downtrodden. He said that the people were so depressed and oppressed that they were not able to take advantage of ordinary civil rights. He welcomed the legal rights the Constitution was granting to each individual but pointed to its limits. In his opinion it was meaningless for the poor people in the villages to know that they now had the fundamental right to live, and to have full employment, or that they could have their meetings, their conferences, their associations and various other civil liberties. It was essential to create conditions where these constitutionally enshrined rights could be effectively enjoyed. The tribal traditional laws are violated and their lands are snatched by merchants. The tribals are treated like slaves. The money lenders exploited the poor tribals. The zamindars exploited poor villagers. The poor peasant and the tribals do not get even basic education. For this they needed protection. Ranga said, “They need props. They need a ladder.”
The Quit India movement was launched in August 1942 by Gandhiji. The slogan of the movement was ‘Do or Die’ and ‘British leave India’. It was the third major movement against British Rule. Although Gandhi was jailed at once, younger activists organized strikes and acts of sabotage all over the country. They, in very large numbers, left their colleges to go to jail. Particularly active in the underground resistance were socialist members of the Congress, such as Jayaprakash Narayan. In several districts, such as Satara in the west and Medinipur in the east, “independent” governments were proclaimed. A large number of women across the country also participated in the processions. The British responded with much force, yet it took more than a year to suppress the rebellion. Thousands of Indians joined the mass movement. The Congress leaders were sent to jail. Jinnah expanded his influence over Muslims in Punjab and Sind. In 1944, Gandhiji was released from prison. Afterwards the Congress started negotiations with the League.
On 26 January, 1948, at his prayer meeting he said that “the worst is over”, that Indians would henceforth work collectively for the “equality of all classes and creeds, never the domination and superiority of the major community over a minor, however insignificant it may be in numbers or influence”. He had the hope that geographically and politically India was divided into two but the people will remain friends and brothers forever and respect and help each other. Many scholars have written of the months after Independence as being Gandhiji’s “finest hour”. After communal harmony. He believed that people’s hearts could be changed with Non-Violence. Gandhiji came to Delhi in Sep. 1947 and addressed the Sikhs at Sisganj Gurudwara to bring peace. He started a fast to bring about a change in the hearts of people.